Also known as the South Pole and the North Pole, Antarctica and the Arctic are the earth's polar regions. Antarctica is covered in ice, and surrounded by the Southern Ocean.
If you are unfamiliar with that term, that is because prior to 2000, the Southern Ocean was a traditional mariner's term, considered by most to be the location where the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans met. In 2000, the Southern Ocean was made official by the International Hydrographic Organization. The Southern Ocean includes the Amundsen Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, Drake Passage, Ross Sea, Weddell Sea, and a portion of the Scotia Sea.
About ninety-eight percent of Antarctica is covered by ice, which formed about twenty-five million years ago. The ice shrinks during the summer, and Antarctica gets smaller.
Antarctica is the only continent that is virtually uninhabited, except for as many as fifty thousand people staffing research facilities. In 1959, a treaty was signed, setting the Antarctic region aside for research purposes, with no country claiming it as its own. The treaty also bans nuclear testing. One of the research facilities in the Antarctic is the McMurdo Station, which resembles a small city.
The continent is not without animal life, however. About eight-five different types of crustaceans are in the Southern Ocean, collectively known as krill. The South Pole is also home to penguins, seals, and whales. The Arctic is not actually a continent but includes the Arctic Ocean and parts of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Lapland, Norway, and Russia. Like the South Pole, the Arctic is covered by ice. Despite a lack of trees and a frozen ground, the North Pole is home to birds, fish, marine animals, land animals, and people who have adapted to living under its extreme conditions, although Santa Claus has not actually been sighted.
The Arctic is sometimes known as the Land of the Midnight Sun because it is night there for half the year, and day for the remainder of the year, depending on whether the North Pole is facing away or towards the sun. In the winter, the temperatures in the Arctic may reach as low as 22 degrees Fahrenheit, while in the summer they are seldom higher than the freezing point of 32 degrees, much colder than the Antarctic. The number of months in which the average daily temperatures never rise above freezing increases the farther north you go. The cause of the Arctic cold, even during the months when the sun is up, is due to the sun's failure to rise high in the sky. Rather, its rays strike the ground obliquely, spreading solar energy thinly, but over a larger patch of ground.
Although the Arctic has four seasons, as in temperate latitudes, the Arctic winters are long, the summers short, and the seasons in between are less dramatic. When the Arctic sky is fully dark, which it never is in high summer, the chances are very good for viewing a spectacular display of the aurora borealis, otherwise known as the northern lights.
Nevertheless, the North Pole is home to such animals as the musk ox, polar bears, grizzly bears, sheep, caribou, moose, wolves, arctic foxes, wolverines and weasels, arctic hares, ground squirrels, beaver, walruses, and several species of birds.
Like the Antarctic, the Arctic is not a place where most people would like to live, but scientists have undertaken expeditions to the Arctic for centuries, and in more recent years the region has seen cruise ships, scientific vessels, ice camps, and permanent research facilities.
Unlike the Antarctic, the Arctic has long been populated by humans, including several indigenous people who make up more than half of its current population, chief among them being the Indians, Inuit, and the Métis. Although both are cold areas with a lot of ice, there is a difference between the Arctic and the Antarctic, particularly in their environment, animal life, plant life, and human activity.
The Antarctic is a continent surrounded by the planet's stormiest seas, while the Arctic is a frozen ocean with masses of land within the circle. Much of the reason why there is more human activity in the Arctic is that it was discovered long before the Antarctic. Also, Antarctica is covered by ice throughout the year, while the Arctic supports trees and flowering plants during its summer season. Web sites whose topics are focused on either the Arctic or the Antarctic are appropriate for this category.
Recommended Resources
Founded by August Howard in 1934, the APS is a non-profit organization connecting scientists, explorers, and enthusiasts around the world who value the uniqueness of the polar regions, and who play critical roles in shaping their identity. The APS supports and encourages research and exploration in the Arctic and Antarctic. The organization publishes "Polar Times," a quarterly magazine that covers topics related to polar exploration, science, and history. Photos and videos are available.
https://americanpolar.org/
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station
The United States scientific research station is located at the South Pole, specifically on the high plateau of Antarctica. It is the southernmost point under the jurisdiction (not sovereignty) of the United States. Administered by the Division of Polar Programs within the National Science Council, the station is used to study the geophysics of the earth's polar regions. Photographs, webcams, statistical data, South Pole news, a historical timeline, and a memorial page are featured.
http://www.southpolestation.com/
Also known as the South Pole, Antarctica is Earth’s southernmost continent. The site lists countries in the Antarctic, which may be sorted alphabetically by population or square kilometers. The location and a map of each are presented, along with its people, capital, currency, harbors and ports, geographical data, and weather information. Antarctica, Bouvet Island, French Southern Territories, Heard and McDonald Islands, South Georgia Island, and South Sandwich Island are included.
http://countriesantarctica.com/
Formed in 2012, Antarctic Glaciers promotes the science of Antarctic glaciology and disseminates its findings to anyone interested. Its website includes reports on its research on the Antarctic Peninsula and those reported by the larger glaciology community, focusing on published, peer-reviewed literature. Owned and managed by Bethan Davies, the website was designed and developed in collaboration with the Department of Geography, Newcastle University, and Sefan Senk from Senktec.
https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/
Darryn Schneider offers a personal perspective on a range of topics relating to Antarctica, including the weather, history, penguins, jobs, tourism, and photography. South Pole diaries from 2000, 2004, 2006, and 2007 are presented, along with projects and information for use in schools, reviews of movies and books on the subject, a FAQ on Antarctica, contacts, and a portfolio of photographs taken by the author, with a link to a third-party site where many of his photographs may be purchased.
http://antarctica.kulgun.net/
The online news site offers local news from Antarctica, weather and climate information, live webcams from the Amundsen-Scott Station, facts and trends relating to Antarctica, activities on the continent by China and the United States, as well as news from these countries. arts, film, music, short stories, poetry, and photography. Contributors are recognized, and poll results, opinions, and letters to the editor are published. A shopping page offers a variety of items.
https://www.antarcticajournal.com/
Antarctica21 operates fly and cruise expeditions to Antarctica and sea voyages to the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and Antarctica. Its trips are designed to be boutique wilderness adventures, including small ship experiences that allow time to explore remote destinations. Its expeditions, destinations, ships, and aircraft are highlighted. Its itineraries may be examined through the site, a brochure downloaded, its packages and promotions are highlighted, and travel requirements documented.
https://www.antarctica21.com/
Arctic Health is a source of information on various aspects of the Arctic environment and the health of northern peoples. Intended for students, researchers, and others interested in the health aspects of the Arctic, the platform recognizes the One Health concept, a worldwide strategy for expanding interdisciplinary collaborations and communication in all aspects of healthcare for humans, animals, and the environment. It offers published and unpublished articles, reports, and data.
https://arctichealth.org/
Arctic Landscape Conservation Cooperative
The Arctic LCC aims to identify and offer information on the conservation of natural and cultural resources in the Arctic region, focusing on climate change. The organization accomplishes its mission through coordinated actions with management agencies, conservation organizations, and other stakeholders. Its policies, projects, reports, events, and organizational structure are set forth. Council members, staff, and LCC members are featured, and contacts are provided.
https://lccnetwork.org/lcc/arctic
Arctic Sea Ice News & Analysis
The National Snow & Ice Data Center (NSIDC) presents scientific analysis of Arctic sea ice conditions, with updates during the first week of every month or more often as conditions warrant. Its data includes temperatures, glaciers, ice sheets, permafrost, sea ice, soil moisture, snow, other statistics, research reports, ongoing projects, sponsored programs, and contacts. Facts on basic science and information about snow, ice, frozen ground, and the cryosphere are included.
https://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/
Created by the Polar Geospatial Center, a research center at the University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering, the ArcticDEM project is a response to the need for high-quality elevation data in remote locations, the availability of technology to process big data, and the need for accurate measurement of topographic change. ArcticDEM Explorer is an application enabling the exploration of a collection of Arctic DEMs, showing how the Arctic has changed over time.
https://arcticdem.apps.pgc.umn.edu/
The Australian Government’s Department of the Environment and Energy maintains the division, based in Hobart, Tasmania, which is responsible for advancing the nation’s strategic, scientific, environmental, and economic interests in the Antarctic by protecting, administering, and researching the region. Its strategy, action plan, organizational chart, reports, budget information, job opportunities, and information about living and working in Antarctica are provided.
https://www.antarctica.gov.au/
Deception Island is an active volcano in the South Shetland Islands, off the Antarctic Peninsula, with barren volcanic slopes, steaming beaches, and glaciers layered with volcanic ash. It is one of the only places on Earth where a boat can sail directly into the center of an active volcano. Its climate, flora, fauna, and volcanic activity are detailed, with information about current activities, news, a management package, and photos showing graffiti on Whalers Bay buildings.
http://www.deceptionisland.aq/
Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica
LIMA is a program of the United States Geological Survey, the British Antarctic Survey, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, funded by the National Science Foundation. Mosaics and Landsat scenes may be downloaded from the site, along with customized areas, posters, maps, and other data. Other resources include an interactive atlas, access to its digital library, and GIS resources. USGS maps, posters, and wall art may be ordered from the USGS store.
https://lima.usgs.gov/
The Foundation was established to conserve the historical buildings known as Mawson’s Huts at Cape Denison on Commonwealth Bay, which was the base for the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-1914, led by Sir Douglas Mawson, Australia’s greatest polar explorer. A gallery of photographs, several educational videos, a blog, an online store, and a calendar of events are set forth, and information about its Replica Museum and Antarctic Festival are included.
https://www.mawsons-huts.org.au/
Created and maintained by Bill Spindler, an HRSG engineer at Fluor Corporation and former project engineer with Raytheon Polar Services Company, with experience at the US Antarctic Program, the site offers period and contemporary photos of the station, as well as a master plan for its future development and renovations, including updates, panel reports, and a webcam. Photos and documentation of the Ross Island Earth Station antenna installation are posted. Contact data is included.
http://www.mcmurdostation.com/
Maintained by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the site provides general information on the Arctic, the NOAA’s Arctic Program, its vision, strategies, and action plan, as well as its focus areas, and Arctic report card, and details about its oceans, weather, research facilities, and fisheries. Issued annually, a report card is a peer-reviewed source of precise, reliable, and concise environmental data on the current state of the Arctic environment.
https://arctic.noaa.gov/
Located on Anvers Island in Antarctica, the Palmer Station is the only United States station located north of the Antarctic Circle. The US Antarctic Program, part of the National Science Foundation, operates it. A low aerial view and profile of the station are set forth along with several photographs of the original station, vessels, and surrounding terrain, as well as the construction of the original and current station, a historical timeline, and a history of the research vessel Hero.
http://www.palmerstation.com/
Funded by the National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs, the PGC is a research center at the University of Minnesota's College of Engineering. It provides researchers and logistics groups with geospatial support, mapping, and GIS/remote sensing solutions. Founded in 2007 as the Antarctic Geospatial Information Center, it was initially a two-man project. In 2011, its name was changed to reflect its responsibilities for the Arctic as well as the Antarctic.
https://www.pgc.umn.edu/
The PLC began in the early 1970s with the intention of assembling a library of resources specific to the polar regions of the earth, but not located in a northern region, as a place where librarians whose libraries were oriented to the northern regions to get together to exchange ideas and information. Its history, constitution, and leadership are specified, along with its membership policies, a membership form, calendar of events, and downloadable publications.
https://polarlibraries.org/
Scott Polar Research Institute
Part of the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge, the Scott Polar Research Institute was established in 1920 and serves as a study center in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Its research and study programs are highlighted, its findings are reported on the site, and its collections are available online. Exhibitions, museum events, on-site store, and research seminars are highlighted. An online shopping area offers a range of polar-related items.
https://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/
The UK Antarctic Heritage Trust was established in 1993, incorporating the Antarctic Heritage Trust - New Zealand, which has existed since 1987. Its mission is to conserve historic buildings and artifacts in Antarctica, preserve British Antarctic heritage, and support a wide range of public programs highlighted here, along with a history and timeline of the organizations, contacts, and an online shopping area offering Antarctic-inspired apparel, books, patches, pins, and other items.
http://www.ukaht.org/
United States Antarctic Program
As a program of the National Science Foundation’s Office of Polar Programs, Geosciences Directorate, the USAP represents the United States in Antarctica, advancing US goals and supporting the Antarctic Treaty, which encourages international cooperation, maintains an active presence in the region, and conducts scientific research. A USAP summary and background, policies, and discoveries are outlined. Editions of the Antarctic Sun are archived from 1996 on, and subscriptions are available.
https://antarcticsun.usap.gov/
United States Arctic Research Commission
Established by the US Congress in 1984, the USARC is an independent agency that advises the president and Congress on domestic and international Arctic research. Its principal duties and organizational structure are set forth, and a directory of Arctic science websites is featured, along with news, reports, brochures, maps, presentations, and related publications and updates. Meeting schedules, goals and objectives, working groups, and event announcements are posted.
https://www.arctic.gov/
Founded in 2008 and located about 120 miles southwest of the northeast maritime coast of the Antarctic Ocean, the U of AA is the only university on the Antarctic continent. General information about the institution includes its admissions policies, academic and athletics programs, student life programs, research programs, museums, art galleries, libraries, and other facilities. The university publishes academic journals and other literary materials, which are available online.
http://www.antarcticaedu.com/
Launched by the World Wildlife Fund in 1992, the WWF Arctic Programme is charged with raising awareness about the Arctic and its challenges, such as air pollution, oil spills, accidents, and mining, also working towards reducing these threats while preserving biodiversity. Headquartered in Sweden, the program advocates for climate change mitigation and adaptation, builds resilience in the Arctic, protects Arctic habitats, and promotes sustainable energy, shipping, and economic development.
https://www.arcticwwf.org/
